Neandertals lived in Europe and Southwest Asia from 130,000 to 28,000 years ago. They evolved from Homo heidelbergensis in Southern Europe. Neandertals were short, stocky, heavily muscled hunters adapted to ice age cold. Adult males averaged 5'5'' and 143 lbs – females 5'1'' and 119 lbs. Their bones show frequent healed fractures from close-range big game hunting. Brain size equaled or exceeded modern humans adjusted for body size. Some had pale skin and red hair for vitamin D in cold Europe. Neandertal genomes diverged from modern humans 800,000 years ago. Interbreeding occurred 87,000-37,000 years ago in Southwest Asia. 1-4% of European and Asian DNA comes from Neandertals. Sub-Saharan Africans lack Neandertal DNA due to out-of-Africa migration. Neandertal DNA aided immune adaptation to Eurasian diseases. Hybrid skulls show Neandertal-modern human mixtures in Europe. Neandertal population peaked at 70,000 with 7,000 breeders then crashed. Modern humans outcompeted them via superior technology and safer labor division. Neandertals hunted dangerously with both sexes risking death. Denisovans interbred with ancestors of Melanesians contributing 4-6% DNA.