No significant outcome differences between black and white males with white mothers. Large gaps persist between those groups and black males with black mothers. Maternal race explains most black-white gaps for boys, exceeding all other maternal, paternal, and school factors combined. Controls including maternal race eliminate entire black-white gaps in education and labor outcomes for boys. Black children with white mothers have test scores, GPAs, college completion, wages identical to white children. Black mothers produce 0.74 SD lower test scores in children versus white mothers. Gaps insensitive to child self-reported race, interviewer race assessment, or skin tone. White mothers of black children resemble black mothers in low income, welfare use, single parenthood. Discrimination operates through mother-child channels like dialect or parenting, not child skin color. School fixed effects explain part of maternal race effect but leave large gaps from black mothers. Father characteristics explain little of gaps. Hispanic patterns mirror blacks: white mothers erase gaps. Mixed-race children with white mothers stochastically dominate single-race black children in test scores. Outcomes reject genetic explanations since white mothers overcome any putative black genetic disadvantage. Black mothers' cultural environment fosters traits penalized later in life. White-black intermarriages involve lower-quality white women but still yield white-level child outcomes. Black students with white mothers attend schools between white and black quality. Gaps in math grades and wages for black males fully attributable to black mothers. For girls, maternal race explains test score gaps but less for wages.